From as far back as the 16th century the roots of this perennial herb have been ground to make a pleasant-tasting, slightly bitter substitute for coffee used in coffee-mixes and liquid ‘coffee’ extracts. Extract from the root is also used to flavour certain refreshing soft drinks.

The one-time fame of this herb is documented by its many different common names. In the USA it was called `biblelear because the first colonists used the long leaves as bookmarks for the bible. In England it was used to flavour ale, hence the name alecost.

The German name Marienkraut, meaning costmary, is now only a reminder of an almost forgotten spice, once highly prized and widely grown in gardens. The parts used for flavouring are the large leathery leaves with an aroma slightly reminiscent of menthol. They are used fresh or, dried to flavour soups, salads, pies, stuffings for fatty meats, poultry, game and especially veal.

Costmary is a hardy perennial herb that survives winter weather well. “Hie leaves grow mainly on the lower part of the shoots and lusher foliage may be obtained by removing the large, much-branched flower stalk before the flowers open. It is readily propagated by dividing large clumps, any tune from spring until autumn. The lower. long-stalked leaves are harvested.

After cutting off the stalks the leaf blades should be dried at a moderate temperature in a well-ventilated place. The dry leaves are then crumbled or ground and stored in air-tight containers. Because the foliage is highly aromatic it should be used sparingly.

Sachets filled with a mixture of dried costmary and lavender are placed between linen to give it a pleasant scent. Also popular is tea made from costmary.

This method is really only suitable for the raising of single and semi-double bedding varieties. It is probably the finest as well as the cheapest method of raising these types. Seed of the taller fully- double varieties will give disappointing results, as the majority will be only semi-double and of nondescript form, quite unsuitable for garden decoration.

The cheap wooden handled knives sold as cobblers’ knives are particularly suitable for the job as they have a straight cutting edge with an angled point, as well as being strong and so capable of standing up to the strain of dividing tough material.

There is one other method of increasing dahlia stock worth mentioning, the primary one in fact, though mentioned last because of its limited value, and that is by seed. This is a comparatively simple matter as the dahlia is no harder to raise from seed than any half hardy annual and it will flower the same year.

The seeds should be sown in pots or boxes in early March, spaced fairly well apart as nearly every seed will germinate, covering the seeds with approximately one eighth of an inch of soil.

The early struck cuttings will require potting on before planting time if the full advantage is to be gained in early flowering, as the plants will become pot bound otherwise, and will not make very good plants, also such plants will not necessarily flower any earlier than later struck plants which have not become pot bound. The plants are ready for potting on once the roots have nicely filled the pot, and should be potted into 48′s (5 in. pots) or even into 32′s (6 in. pots). John Innes No. 2 or 3 is a very useful compost at this stage, having just that extra nourishment that will be appreciated. As with the primary potting the soil should he just moist and crumbly and the plants should not be too firmly potted.

The dahlia with its fleshy, rather brittle, roots does not appreciate too hard potting at any stage, although, of course, it is essential that the additional soil must, despite this, be brought firmly into contact with the ball of soil from the smaller pot without any air gaps.

Excessive alkalinity and acidity are disadvantages, but as both can be minimised quite easily, neither can be considered as prohibiting the growth of dahlias.

The dahlia will grow well in pra&ically every garden with little attention other than staking and tying. If, in addition, the ground is well tended and a little compost or manure added from time to time, then good results are certain.

The site for the dahlia bed or border should be carefully chosen to make the most of the available conditions. It should be open to full sun for the greater part of the day and yet sheltered, particularly from the east and south-west, against strong winds. The soil should be of medium texture, containing a good proportion of clay or marl, and should be in good heart from adequate manuring in previous years. This type of soil is naturally rich in humus and the mineral elements vital to plant growth.

Miscellaneous dahlias are small in number, which are not catered for by the divisions above, such as the orchid flowered and chrysanthemum flowered types. Incidentally the orchid flowered varieties appear to be becoming slightly more popular, particularly the double varieties. These in some way resemble a cactus dahlia, except that the petals are involute instead of revolute, that is the florets are curved forwards across their width into a tube which reveals the reverse side.

Should the soil be deficient in lime, that is, strongly acid, this must be rectified by spreading lime during the winter. Calcium is an essential plant food, though there is a considerable variation in the amount which different plants require. In addition it makes available to the plant other minerals, particularly phosphorus, which is an essential element for strong root growth and tuber development. Poor tuber growth is often evident in soils which are strongly acid and low in phosphates.

It must be stressed that overliming will have equally undesirable results, at least as far as the dahlia is concerned, so that if any doubt is felt, the soil should be analysed. There are several very cheap and reliable outfits available with the aid of which a simple test for calcium content can be made. Remember also that one part of the garden may be nicely balanced, whilst another may he either too acid or alkaline, so that tests should be made throughout the garden.

If pots are used bed these down in well dampened peat, as this will prevent the compost drying out quite so quickly, as well as maintaining a moist atmosphere round the leaves of the cuttings, and so minimise flagging. It is important to realise that losses through damping of are usually greater in close, warm stagnant conditions, so glass. The glass should be removed as soon as possible each day.

Ideal propagating temperatures are approximately 70 F to 75 F bottom heat with about 55 to 65 top heat although much lower temperatures will give equally good results. Rooting will be slower however.

The soil compost used is very much a matter of personal choice. The one thing that is essential is that it must be light, well drained and reasonably rich. John Innes No. 1 potting compost is very suitable, although a little extra peat and sand could be added, but any similar compost can be used quite effectively, provided it contains a reasonable amount of plant food, and a considerable amount of coarse sharp sand, plus peat and/or leaf mould.

Strictly speaking the beds, pots or boxes containing cuttings should not require watering after the initial watering until the cuttings have made roots, if conditions are ideal, but in practice this is seldom true. If water is required, this must be given before the compost completely dries out, and should be done in the morning rather than in the evening, to avoid a too heavy damp atmosphere during the night, the most dangerous time for cuttings.

In some ways this is the finest method of propagation, most nearly approximating to the natural order-the stock will seldom deteriorate if this method is used throughout-and it is very valuable when dealing with varieties which are naturally late in flowering. Varieties such as Mentone, Regina and H.M. Queen Elizabeth in particular are very difficult to flower early except when divided tubers are used. I t must be realised in addition that it is desirable to divide rather than to plant whole tubers. The object is to leave sufficient tuber to keep the plant going until it forms new roots, but no more; an excessive amount of old tuber will only delay the formation of the new roots, and as these are the beginning of the fresh tubers which will ensure the continuance of the plant life it is good to encourage early growth. Another factor is that far too much top growth is produced by the undivided root, and the flowers will probably take second place to leaf growth-obviously not the reason for which dahlias are grown.

The tubers which are to be divided should be put into a cool greenhouse or cold frame in early to mid-March, pressing them gently into the soil in the bed, in such a fashion that only the tubers are covered, not the crown. They can be put into deep boxes if this is preferred, which makes handling so much easier. In any case the soil used should be fairly rich, well drained and yet moisture retentive-again John Jones potting compost is ideal for the purpose. The soil in frames should be lightened with peat and sand with a few handfuls of hoof and horn meal or general fertiliser.

Routine pest control is common to all cultivation, whether in frame or greenhouse. In the greenhouse most pests may be kept at bay by using smoke bombs or aerocides. There are many proprietary brands of these, all of which are good, or the plants may be sprayed regularly with a good insecticide. Gamma B.H.C. is a good all round spray that controls a great number of pests and can safely be recommended.

In frames, spraying is possibly the most satisfactory method. Again Gamma B.H.C. is probably the best insecticide for the purpose, though there are, of course, a number of other insecticides of value; individual tastes vary a little on this matter. The most important thing of all is that it must be a routine matter spraying or dusting at most every seven clays.

Place your order as early as you can, because by so doing you make it possible to stipulate the time you want the plants, with a fair chance that you will get them at that time, which might not be so if you left ordering until the last minute.

Besides ordering directly from the nurseryman it is often possible to purchase nicely grown plants from florists in all the big cities; these are usually from excellent nurseries and often represent good value.

But do be careful; the emphasis now is early flowering and strong stems, that is stems that will hold the flowers well above the foliage.

Of course if it is impossible to do other than plant straight away, the newly received plants must go in the ground but, in this case, put a few pieces of glass round them to protect them a little from the chilly breezes.

It has been stated also that the dahlia is self sterile, that is, it cannot be pollinated by its own pollen, hut, although this may be true of some varieties, it is not invariably so.

The stamens in a bisexual floret tend to produce fertile pollen before the stigma is receptive, so that the chance of self pollination is extremely small. This does not mean that it is not possible to transfer pollen, either naturally or artificially, from another floret or bloom of the same variety to receptive stigma, and so iiiduce self pollination.

In the so-called double flowered varieties, a greater number of the male organs are converted into ray petals, with a consequent lessening in the number of the disc florets. In some cases only the disc florets are fertile, as the female organs in the ray florets are often rudimentary, and therefore not capable of being fertilised.

This explains why it is sometimes possible to obtain seed from ray florets, even though the petal has dropped; in this case the seed has been fertilised before the petal has fallen out, and is retained within the bracteole to finish development. Each floret is capable of producing only one seed.

The greatest obstacle to obtaining seed from the intensely double giant decorative varieties is the length of time taken for the bloom to develop to the fertile stage, and the absence of long periods of sun. In this country, which has comparatively short, cool and damp seasons, it is not uncommon to find it impossible to obtain seeds from such varieties.

At first the plant relies upon nourishment obtained from the tuber but at a later stage fresh roots develop from the base of each green shoot to supply the growing demands of the plant. These fresh roots themselves develop into tubers by the end of the growing season and the old root system then gradually dries out and will eventually rot away.

In some cases the first shoots produced, when removed, will be found to be hollow. Such cuttings are extremely difficult to root, and it is advisable to throw them away. Unless the stock is valuable, when it is obviously sensible to attempt to root them.

One very good compost can be made up from sharp silver sand, fine granulated peat and horticultural vermiculite in equal parts; this seems to give a very good balance between water retention and sharpness whilst quickly losing any surplus water which may be supplied. Peat and sharp sand in equal parts may be used.

The shoots should be severed from the tubers with a very sharp knife, as close to the tuber as possible, and then trimmed by making a second cut with a razor blade, immediately below the joint of the first pair of expanded leaves remaining on the cutting. In some instances, particularly when the shoots have been allowed to become too long, it is advisable to shorten the cutting, after removal from the tubers, to a more manageable size, even if this means removing one or more leaf joints from the base of the cutting. This is much better than removing just the tips of the long shoot, and so leaving a stump.

As an alternative to a true cutting, it is possible to take what are known as heel cuttings, that is cuttings taken with a small part of the crown attached. This is easily done with a very sharp knife, providing it has a thin point (a rose budding knife is ideal), by making at least two cuts inwards at the base of the cutting from opposite sides to minimise destruction of the secondary eyes.

Personally, as I have said earlier, I prefer to eliminate soil from the compost as it is difficult to sterilise, and consider that the peat, sand and vermiculite compost is the best; it is as well to experiment to find out which suits one’s circumstances best.

Such stem cuttings seldom make really good tubers, and are often hollow and therefore difficult to root. The succeeding crops of cuttings rapidly become very thin and long jointed, and are definitely poor material for propagating.

Rind grafting is a method that can be employed only when the sap is already running in the stock and the bark can be loosened easily. With this method a T-shaped slit is made in the bark and the scion, cut with a thin tail, is slipped between the wood and the bark.

The successful outcome of grafting and budding depends on the extent to which the severed tissues of the scion join with those of the stock to form a new individual. It is not only cambium and wood to wood, but also that their tissues have a mutual affinity. For this reason the scion and stock must be from allied species, preferably of the same genus or family. The best and most reliable stocks for various species according to expert literature and verified in practice are the hawthorn, quince, cherry plum, privet, wayfaring tree.

A T-shaped incision is made in the bark of the stock and the bud is then slipped between the bark and bud usually remains dormant throughout the autumn and winter and does not start growing until the following spring. However, a percentage of early budded roses begin growing as soon as the bud is united.

The finest and most abundant display of flowers are borne by shrubs that have ample young wood. Shrubs left untended rejuvenate themselves by throwing out new shoots from the base and it is therefore necessary to aid them in this process. Pruning should not be left until too late so as to prevent the need of removing wood that is very old, for the shortening of strong thick branches mars the shrub’s overall appearance.

Several different forms of grafting are used in the propagation of shrubs. The simplest is whip or tongue grafting, employed where the stock and scion are of similar thickness. With this method the scion, cut downward at an angle, is placed against the stock, cut at a corresponding angle to the scion.

The choice of shrubs for a freely-growing border includes most species and is governed by the quality of the soil of the given site, the abundance of light and the required height of the border. The aesthetic aspect is likewise not to be overlooked, the decisive factors here being the flowers and fruit borne by the given shrubs.

The mock orange attains a height of 2-3 m and is of upright habit. The buds are opposite and small, in summer concealed beneath the broad leaf base; the twigs are dark brown. The flowers, which appear in June, are white and have a sweet scent resembling that of the orange blossom, hence its name. The capsules containing a large number of tiny seeds ripen in October.

The berries of this species are firmly attached to the receptacle so that, unlike the raspberry, when ripe they are plucked off together. This is a large species comprising several hundred subspecies distributed throughout Europe, Asia and America. It grows in western, central and northern Europe, its range extending eastward to the Volga River. It is plentiful in lowlands and hilly country but does not grow at elevations above 800 m.

It is planted either as a solitary specimen, to form thick hedges or in shrub borders, where, being spaced farther apart, the individual shrubs retain their characteristic habit of growth and bear a greater profusion of flowers. Nowadays many Asiatic species and hybrids have superseded P. coronarius in gardens.

The willow spiraea is an erect suckering shrub growing to a height of 1-2 m. The twigs are yellow brown, the buds small (2-3 mm) and bluntly ovate. Qld shoots are dark brown and tend to peel. The dense spiky panicles of tiny pink, sometimes white, flowers do riot appear until .June and July. The small seed pods mature from the end of July to September, when they split to release the minute seeds.

Widespread throughout most of Europe, it grows in central Europe from lowland to mountain elevations up to 1000 m. It occurs in abundance at the edges of woods, in thickets on sun- warmed hillsides, by the wayside and in pastures. It is most plentiful in warmth-loving communities on dry, sunny banks. It requires abundant light and loamy soils, but does not need much moisture.

Propagation is by means of seeds and root suckers. It is a colonist on grazed hillsides, preparing the way for the growth of woodland trees, which are able to gain a foothold as its thorns keep grazing animals at bay. In gardening it is used as rootstock for cultivated varieties of hybrid tea and other roses.

Truffles are fleshy, edible, potato-shaped ascomycetous fungi that grow underground. Most highly prized as delicacies and very expensive to buy are four species of the genus Tuber; namely T. melanosporum, the black truffle of Perigord, France, and the less aromatic. T. aestivum, T. brumale, and T. magnatum. Choiromyees meandriformis and Terfezia leonis from the family Terfeziaceae are highly prized as well.

The best quality seasoning is obtained from the black truffle which grows in the oak woods of southern France and northern Italy. Of all the edible truffles it is the most prized for its flavour.

Wild thyme is harvested shortly before and throughout the flowering period by cutting-off the non-woody top parts. These are then dried in bunches hung in a well-ventilated spot, at a temperature not exceeding 35C (95F) like all plants containing volatile oil. Like garden thyme, wild thyme has a pleasant spicy aroma and slightly bitter taste. In cookery it is used the same as garden thyme.

Fenugreek is an annual herb growing up to 60 cm (2 ft) high and related to clover. It is valuable as a forage crop in the Mediterranean region. The exact translation of the botanical name ‘triangular Greek hay’ refers to the triangular appearance of the flowers and bears testimony to the fact that it was grown in the Mediterranean region as far back as antiquity. To this day it is found naturalized in Greece and Egypt and is also raised in Ethiopia, Lebanon, India, China and Argentina.

Wild thyme also flowers for a longer period than garden thyme and is thus excellent as a food source for bees.

Garden thyme is a sub-shrub growing up to 30 cm (1 ft) high, whereas wild thyme is a creeping perennial herb (serpyllum is derived from the Greek word ‘herpyllos’, meaning creeping). Finally the main component of wild thyme oil is cymol, not thymol.